Jean-Paul Sartre
(1905 – 1980)
French philosopher, writer and political activist, who was one of the key figures in 20th century existentialism and phenomenology. His works and ideas deal with the existential condition of modern humans, looking for authentic ways of being within an oppressive, spiritually destructive society that expects conformity.
The philosophical position which underlies much of Sartre’s work is the idea that humans are free by necessity – or, as he puts it, we are “condemned to be free”. Freedom is not a choice, but a necessity of the human condition, from which we cannot escape. We are always free to make our own choices, even if external circumstances – facticity (the facts of the world) – are overwhelming. There are always alternative choices —the ultimate, most radical alternative is to commit suicide.
— For example, despite their oppressive situation, even the people of a country that has been colonized nevertheless have choices of where they want to guide their lives: they can submit to the new ruling power, try to negotiate with the oppressor, flea the country, commit suicide, attempt non-violent resistance, or attack.
Sartre’s principal philosophical work is Being and Nothingness (1943), which introduces themes and notions central to Sartre’s philosophy. Among the most notable are:
Existence precedes essence: the central thesis of the book and existentialist philosophy as such.
— The claim contrasts the traditional philosophical view that essence (the eternal and unchanging nature of a thing) is more fundamental than existence (the contingent aspect of being)
— However, because existentialism views humans as necessarily free, there is no pre-determined essence (identity), value, or meaning to one’s life.
— Instead, humans, through acting on their freedom, choose their own values and in so doing, create their own identity and existence.
Bad faith: Sartre characterizes bad faith as a phenomenon where humans act inauthentically – in a way that negates their inherent freedom.
— Bad faith is an attempt to escape the responsibilities of freedom.
— For example, by bending to pressures of society, adopting their values and acting in accordance with their expectations, one is absolved of the responsibilities for the choices they made – instead, they can always blame the rules of the system, fate, the establishment, their parents, upbringing, wealth, etc.
“Hell is other people” is one of the most famous statements by Sartre, which appears in his play No Exit (1943). In the play, a couple of recently deceased characters arrive in hell – but hell isn’t a burning, torturous place, where their souls would burn for eternity. Instead, hell is just a waiting room where the characters are trapped. Their punishment is being forever subject to the encounter and judgement of others.
— The statement illustrates the struggle that arises when one free being is encountered by another free consciousness – that is, a subject reduced to an object through the gaze of the “Other”
— Other people can never fully grasp the wholeness and complexity of my being – their gaze and recognition of ‘me’ is always reductive, in that in reduces ‘me’ to a particular kind of being in their mind. Essentially, they lock ‘me’ into their idea of who I am, which in turn alienates me from the wholeness of my being.