John Stuart Mill
( 1806 – 1873 )
John Stuart Mill was an English philosopher and political economist. He is considered the most influential English-speaking philosopher of the 19th century. He contributed immensely to the formulation of classical liberalism, social theory, political theory and political economy. He was also a member of the liberal party and a served in the Parliament for three years, one of the few philosophers who served as elected officials.
Mill was a student of Jeremy Bentham and he followed his teacher in his doctrine of Utilitarianism as an ethical and social theory. Utilitarianism holds that it is moral and necessary to act in a way that produces the most happiness for the greatest amount of people (see Bentham). The most comprehensive description of Mill’s formulation of utilitarianism can be found in his book Utilitarianism (1861).
Mill’s greatest contribution to utilitarianism is the idea that pleasures can be qualitatively separated. While his predecessor Bentham treated all pleasures as equal, Mill argued that some kinds of pleasure are more desirable and more valuable than other. He distinguishes between two kinds of pleasure:
- higher pleasures: mental (intellectual), moral and aesthetic pleasures, which are superior
- lower pleasures: sensual, physical pleasures
On the question of how to determine which pleasures are better and more valuable than others, Mill added an important component. He recognized that in classical utilitarianism, if you would give the average person a choice between a higher and lower pleasure (for example, drinking beer at the pub or reading Plato), the majority would probably opt for the lower.
However, according to Mill, only someone who is competent in both can actually say which is better, and which produces the most happiness. A person who has never studied philosophy, or doesn’t have experiences of high art and intellectual pleasures, is not in a position to judge.
In On Liberty (1869), Mill applies utilitarianism to social and political theory. He outlines the doctrine of laissez-faire (translates as “hands off”), which holds that there should be minimum interference in the life of the individual from government and that the only reason why power can be exercised over a person is to prevent harm to others (the harm principle).
The foundation for this is the Principle of Liberty, which states that individuals are rational enough to make decisions about their well-being on their own and that they should be free to do what they want. Even if their actions cause harm to their own well-being (for example, eating unhealthy, smoking, etc.) the government cannot pass laws to force them to behave otherwise, as long as they are not hurting anybody else.
Mill also argues for the freedom of speech, claiming that is is necessary for intellectual and social progress. He also points out the value of individuality and argues that society should promote creativity and diversity. He believed that conformity is dangerous, as it could lead to the so-called tyranny of the majority – a kind of social tyranny that forces people to conform to the expectations of society, instead of developing their individuality.
Mill is considered one of the first male supporters of gender equality. He wrote the early feminnist work On Subjection of Women (1869), where he argued for equality between men and women, as well as for the abolition of slavery in the United States. He was also an early proponent of a universal state-sponsored education system.